लिपिको उत्पत्ति र विकास
नेपाल राजकीय प्रज्ञा–प्रतिष्ठानद्वारा प्रकाशित बृहत् नेपाली शब्दकोशमा उच्चारित ध्वनि वा वर्णलाई अक्षर भनिएको छ । ध्वनि लिखित र उच्चारित दुई प्रकारका हुन्छन् । ध्वनिलाई अंकित गर्न कुनै एउटा रेखा वा रेखासमूहबाट विभिन्न प्रकारका आकृतिहरू बनाइन्छन् ।
ध्वनिलाई अक्षरको रूपमा रूपान्तरण गरेर लामो समयसम्म सुरक्षित राख्न र आवश्यक पर्दा पहिलेको ध्वनिलाई स्मरण गर्न सुबिधा होस् भन्ने उद्देश्यले अक्षरको सृष्टि भएको हुनु पर्दछ । किनभने कुनै विचार वा कुरा आदि छ महिनाको अवधि भित्रैमा बिर्सन सकिन्छ भने लामो समय सम्ममा त नबिर्सने कुरै भएन । त्यसै कारणले पूर्वीय दर्शन अनुसार ब्रह्माजीले पत्रमा उतारी दिएका अक्षरहरू सृष्टि गर्नु भएको हो भन्ने पौराणिक भनाई छ । यदि ब्रह्माजीले उक्त लिखित आँखा नबनाई दिनु भएको भए मानिसको यस्तो असल गति हुने थिएन भन्ने कुरा नारदस्मृतिमा पनि उल्लेख भएको छ ।
यस प्रकार पूर्वीय दर्शन अनुसार पृथ्बीको उत्पत्तिको साथै लिपिको पनि उत्पत्ति भएको हो, यो पृथ्वीको उत्पत्ति ब्रह्माजीले गरेका हुन् । तसर्थ लिपिको विकासको क्रम अनादि समय देखि चली आएको हो भन्ने कुरा श्रीमद्भागवत् महापुराणमा पनि उल्ल्ेख भएको छ । ब्रह्माजीको चार मुखबाट चार वेद र हृदयबाट ओंकार उत्पन्न भएको हो । उष्णिक, गायत्री, त्रिष्टुप, अनुष्टुप, जगती र बृहती छन्दहरू उनको शरीरका विभिन्न अंगहरूबाट उत्पन्न भएका हुन् । त्यस्तै पञ्चवर्ग, क,च,ट,त,प अर्थात क देखि म सम्मका अक्षरहरू तथा अकारादि स्वरहरूको उत्पत्ति भएको हो । ऊष्मवर्ण तथा अन्तस्थः अर्थात श, ष, स, ह एवं य, र, ल, व उनको विभिन्न इन्द्रीयहरूबाट उत्पन्न भएका हुन् ।
आज प्राप्त भएको ब्राह्मी लिपिभन्दा पहिलेको ब्रह्माजीले सृष्टि गरेको स्वर र ब्यञ्जनका चिन्हहरूको आकार प्रकारबाट संशोधित हुँदै आएका हुन् भन्ने यो लेखकको विश्वास छ । ब्रह्माजीले उत्पन्न गर्दाको अवस्थाको आकृति नै आज प्राप्त भएको ब्राह्मी लिपि हुन सक्दैन । आज प्राप्त ब्राह्मी लिपि भन्दा पूर्व कुनै न कुनै रूपको लिपि प्रचलनमा रहेको हुुनुपर्दछ ।
बाह्मी लिपिः लुम्बिनीको स्तम्भ लेखबाट
सीधा र बक्र रेखाको योगबाट बनेको आकृति अक्षर र अक्षर हरूको समूह नै लिपि हो । जैन साहित्यको समयोग सूत्रमा अठार लिपिहरूको वर्णन पाइन्छ । बौद्धग्रन्थ ललित बिस्तरमा चौसठ्ठी लिपिहरूको वर्णन गरिको छ । यी लिपिहरू मध्ये ब्राह्मी लिपिको नाम पहिलो स्थानमा रहेको छ । ब्रह्माबाट सृष्टि भएको कारणले ब्राह्मी भनिएको हुनु पर्दछ ।
लिच्छबी लिपिः
समय बित्दै जाँदा लिपिमा पनि परिवर्तन हुँदै जानु स्वभाविक प्रकृया हो । प्रत्येक लेखकले आफुलाई जसरी सजिलो हुन्छ, त्यसैगरी लेख्दछ । त्यस कारणले मूल नमूनामा संशोधन र परिवर्तनहुन जान्छ । त्यो परिवर्तित नमूनालाई पनि नमूना मानी लेख्दै आउँदा पछिल्ला पुस्ताहरूका अक्षरको मूल ढाँचामा धेरै परिवर्तन हँुदै आएका हुन्छन् । त्यसैगरी जति–जति समय बित्दै जान्छ, त्यति–त्यति मूल नमूनामा संशोधन भएर लिपिको आकृति फरक पर्दै जान्छ । भारतको गुप्त कालमा आउँदा सम्म ब्राह्मी लिपिमा धेरै परिवर्तन भै सकेको थियो । त्यस कारणले गुप्तकालमा लेखिएको लिपिलाई भारतीयहरूले गुप्तलिपि भन्ने नामाकरण गरेका छन् । भारतको गुप्तकालमा लेखिएका हस्ताक्षर जस्तै लिपि नेपालमा पनि छन् । नेपालमा रहेको त्यस्ता हस्ताक्षरहरूलाई पनि भारतीय नाम गुप्तलिपि भन्नु उचित थिएन । त्यसै कारणले गुप्तकालको समकालीन नेपालको लिच्छवीकाल भएकोले, सम्बत् २०१७ मा आएर ब्राह्मी लिपिबाट परिवर्तन हुँदै आएको लिपिलाई लिच्छबी लिपि नामाकरण गरिएको हो ।
लिच्छबी कालमा पनि लिपिको विकासको क्रम जारी नै थियो । एउटै लिच्छबी कालको पूर्वार्ध र उत्तरार्धतिर लेखिएका हस्ताक्षरहरूका आकृतिमा पनि भिन्नता हुँदै आएका छन् । त्यस कारणले लिच्छबी कालको हस्ताक्षरहरूलाई दुई भागमा वर्गिकरण गरेर पूर्व लिच्छबीकालीन र उत्तर लिच्छबीकालीन लिपि भन्ने प्रचलन चलेको छ ।
पूर्व लिच्छबी लिपि, देउपाटनको रत्नसंघको अभिलेखबाट
उत्तर लिच्छबी लिपि, राष्ट्र्यि अभिलेखालयमा रहेको स्कन्धपुराणबाट,
देवनागरी लिपि
ब्राह्मी लिपि परिवर्तित र संशोधित हुँदै आउँदा देवनागरी लिपिको सृष्टि भएको हो । प्रत्येक अक्षर र ब्यञ्जनका अधिपति वा स्वामि कुनै न कुनै देवता मानिन्छन् । अक्षरको स्वामि देवता भएको कारणले देवनागरी लिपि भनिएको हुनु पर्दछ । आजभोली हामीले लेख्ने पढने अक्षर जस्तै सुुरुसुरुमा देवनागरी लिपि थिएन । आज हामीले लेख्ने पढने लिपि पनि समय बित्दै गएर परिवर्तित रूपमा आजको अवस्थामा आएको हो । यो पनि पछि परिवर्तन हुदै जाने छ ।
बाह्मी लिपिबाट देवनागरी लिपि सम्मकोे विकास क्रम
आधुनिक उपकरणको प्रभाव ः
लिपिमा उपकरणहरूको पनि प्रभाव पर्दै आएको छ । प्रेस र टायप राइटरको विकास पछि लिपिको ढाँचामा परिवर्तन भएको थियो । अब कम्प्यूटरको प्रभावले गर्दा देवनागरी लिपिमा पनि धेरै परिवर्तन हुँदै आएको छ ।
देवनागरी लिपि ब्राह्मी लिपि कै संशोधित स्वरूप हो भन्ने कुरामा कुनै शंका छैन । उपलब्ध ब्राह्मी लिपि भन्दा पहिले पनि कुनै लिपि प्रचलनमा आएको हुुनु पर्दछ भन्ने सन्दर्भमा अध्ययन गर्दै जाँदा लिपिको पश्चिम एशियाको इतिहासबाट आज भन्दा नौ हजार वर्ष अधि देखि चित्रवत लेखन प्रणालीको विकास हुँदैआएको देखिन्छ ।
लिपिकोे पश्चिम एशियाली इतिहास
लिपिको इतिहास भन्नु नै मानव सभ्यताको इतिहास हो । सिकार गर्ने सामग्रीको खोज पाषाण युगका मानिसहरूको पहिलो आविस्कार थियो । बलियो र चुच्चो परेको धारिलो ढुंँगाले प्रहार गरेर सिकार गर्द थे । तिनै चुच्चो ढुँगाले कोरेर गुफामा रुखपात र पशुपक्षीहरूको चित्र बनाएर अभिलेख राख्ने गर्दथे । सिकारमा बन्यजन्तुसंंग भएको संघर्ष र विजय प्राप्त गरेपछि ती जन्तुहरूको चित्र गुफामा बनाउँथे ।
कालान्तरमा यिनै चित्रहरूबाट शांकेतिक चिन्हहरू बनाएर शब्द र वाक्यहरूको प्रतिनिधित्व हुन थाल्यो । चित्रको ठाउँमा चिन्हहरूको विकास भयो र परस्पर संंचारको माध्यम बन्यो । यसैबाट लिपिको विकासकोक्रम सुरु भयो । लगभग ई.सा. पूर्व १७०० देखि ई.सा. पूर्व १५०० को बीचमा अक्षरले चित्रलाई प्रतिस्थापन गरेको हो भन्ने विद्वानहरूको निस्कर्ष देखिन्छ ।
बर्तमान हेब्रू लिपि ई.सा. पूर्व ६०० ई. तिर प्रचलनमा आएको थियो भने ई.सा. पूर्व ४०० वर्ष तिर ग्रीक लिपिको विकास भएको थियो । ग्रीक पछि बेञ्जामिन र रोमन तथा त्यस पछि ल्याटिन लिपिको विकास भएको हो भन्ने विद्वानहरूको भनाई छ ।
भनिन्छ ग्रीसका विद्वान क्याडमस ९ऋबमmगक० ले पहिलो पटक अक्षरको आविस्कार गरेर कागजमा एक अर्कालाई सूचना आदान प्रदान गरेका हुन् ।
चीनमा ढुँगामा खोपेको ठाउँमा ध्वाँसो र बत्तीको तेल फेटेर कालो आंगारिक मसी बनाएका थिए । त्यही मसी लगाएर चित्रलाई स्पष्ट र आकर्षक बनाउँथे । ई.सा. पूर्व २६९७ ई. मा चिनियाँ दार्शनिक त्ष्भल ीअजभग ले मसीको खोज गरेका हुन् । चिनमा ई.स. पूर्व १२०० इर्. सम्ममा राम्रा विभिन्न रंङ्गका मसी बनी सकेका थिए ।
भाषाको विकास भएपछि त्यो भाषाको अभिलेख राख्नको निमित्त अक्षरको विकास भएको हुनु पर्छ भन्ने सामान्य ज्ञानले अनुमान गर्दछ । त्यसैले लेख भन्दा भाषा धेरे अधिदेखि सुरु भएको हुनु पर्दछ । सम्भवतः मानिसको उत्पत्ति संगै । पहिले हा ..हू.... गर्ने स्वरले एक अर्कोसंग सम्पर्क राख्ने, जंगली जनावरलाई धपाउने गरेको हुनु पर्छ । लगभग ई.सा. पूर्व २५,००० देखि ३०,००० वर्ष पूर्व गुफाहरूमा चित्र बनाउने गर्थे भन्ने विद्वानहरूको भनाई देखिन्छ ।
लगभग ९,००० वर्ष पूर्व नवपाषण युगमा सिकार गरिएका जन्तुहरू वा पशुहरूको गणना गर्न साना ढुंगामा कोरेर सम्झनाको निमित्त राख्ने गरेको चिन्हहरू पनि भेटिएका छन् ।
लगभग ई. सा पूर्व ४१०० देखि ३८०० वर्ष तिर सुमेरियाली ९क्गmभचष्बल० सभ्यतामा माटाको चक्कामा लेखेर अभिलेख राख्ने प्रचलन सुरु भएको हो भन्ने तथ्य मेसोपोटायियाको यूरुक भन्ने ठाउँको उत्खननबाट देखिन आएको छ ।
मेसोपोटामियामा पाँचहजार वर्ष पूर्व नै अक्षर हरूको आविष्कार भै सकेको थियो । जब मानिस ससाना समूहमा गाँउँहरूमा बस्न थाले, तब सबैले सबैलाई चिन्दथे । कस्को कति पशु वा जमीन छ भन्ने कुरा सबैलाई याद हुन्थ्यो । जब जनसंख्या बढ्यो र शहर बन्यो, तब राजालाई हिसाब किताब राख्न, कर असूल गर्न आदिको निमित्त अभिलेख राख्नु पर्ने भयो । यस्तो अभिलेख माटाको चक्कामा चित्रवत रूपमा लेखेर त्यस समयमा राख्ने गरेका थिए भन्ने कुरा मेसोपोटामिया को यूरुक भन्ने ठाउँको उत्खननबाट प्राप्त ई. सा पूर्व ३,२०० वर्ष अधि चित्रात्मक पद्धतिमा लेखिएका माटाका यी चक्काहरूले प्रमाणित गरेका छन् ।
माथिका चित्रहरूले मानिसको बिचार या धारणाको प्रतिनिधित्व गरेका छन् । पछिपछि यिनै चित्रहरूले स्वरको पनि प्रतिनिधित्व गर्न थालेको हुनुपर्छ ।
शीर खुट्टा घाम हात नारी
यस प्रकार माटाका चक्कीहरूमा तीखो बस्तुले कोरेर जे कुरा लेख्नुथियो त्यहीबस्तुको चित्र अंकित गरिन थालियोे । जस्तो मानिसको शीर, खुट्रटा, धाम, हात नारीलाई बुझाउन यस्ता चिन्ह बनाउने गर्थे भन्ने कुरा माथिको माटाको चक्कीमा लेखिएका चिन्हहरूले शंकेत गरेका छन् ।
सुरुमा मानिस भूमि र भूमिजन्य उत्पादन गरेर समूहमा बस्न थालेपछि भूमि र पशु आदि बस्तुहरूलाई सम्बोधन गर्न अक्षर वा लिपिको निर्माण भएको हुनु पर्दछ । भनिन्छ मेसोपोटेमिया र त्यसका नगीचका क्षेत्रहरू नै पहिलो लिपि निर्माता हुन सक्दछन् । ग्रीक भाषामा नदीहरूको बीचको भू–भागलाई मेसोपोटामियाँ भनिन्छ । खास गरेर तिग्रस र यूफ्रेट नदीको बीचको भाग, आजको इराक, सिरियाको उत्तरी क्षेत्र, टर्कीको दक्षिणी भाग र इरानको दक्षिणीभाग नै मेसोपोटेमिया भनिन्थ्यो । त्यही क्षेत्रमा अक्षरको ब्यञ्जन र स्वर पनि परिभाषित भएका थिए भन्ने विद्वानहरूको विश्वास छ ।
मेसोपोटेमियाबाट मिश्र तिर लागौंं । मिश्रमा ई. सा. पूर्व ४००० वर्षको अन्ततिर चित्र लेखन प्रक्रियाको विकास हुन लागेको थियो । सबै भन्दा पुरानो ई. सा. पूर्व ३१०० वर्ष पूर्व को राजाहरूले श्रृंगारको प्रसाधन राख्न बनाइएको गाईको शीरको आकारको पात्र नर्मर प्यालेट ९ ल्ब्च्)ःभ्च् एबििभतभ ० भेटिएको छ । त्यो प्यालेटमा बहादुरीको प्रतीक चित्रहरू कूँदिएका छन् । यो प्यालेट क्यानाडाको रोयल ओन्टारियो म्यूजियम, टोरन्टोमा आज पनि सुरक्षित छ ।
भनिन्छ पहिलो पटक चित्रलाई स्वरमा रूपान्तरण मिश्रमा भएको हो । यो मुख को चिन्ह हो । मिश्रमा मुखलाई री भन्दछन् ।
Thursday, November 18, 2010
Is D N A a conclusive evidence ?
s] 8LPgP csf6\o k|df0f xf]]]]]] < 
clwjQmf kß/fh sfˆn]
x:tfIf/ tyf cf}+nf5fk lz]if1
k|fSsygM 8LPgP csf6\o k|df0f xf] jf xf]Og eGg] k|Zgsf] pQ/ vf]Hg' eGbf klxn] o:t} k|Zg ;dfj]z ePsf] cfˆgf] Pp6f cg'ej :d/0f ug{ rfxG5' . sfg"g Aoj;foLx?sf] bf]>f] /fli6||o ;Dd]ngdf cf}+nf5fk lj1fgsf] lg:sif{ csf6\|o k|df0f x'G5 eGg] cf;osf] Pp6f sfo{kq k|:t't u/]s]f lyPF . ;Dd]ngdf o; ljifodf sfg"g Aoj;foLx? aLr lgs} 5nˆmn eof] . d]/f] :ki6Ls/0faf6 k|foM ;a} h;f] pkl:yt ;xefuL ljb\jfgx? ;xdt x'g' x'GYof] . Tof] ;ldltsf] ;+of]hs ljb\jfg clwjQmf >L s[i0f k|;fb l3ld/] x'g'x'GYof] . cGtdf pxfFn] s'g}klg ljifosf] ljz]if1sf] /fo csf6\o k|df0f x'g ;Sb}g eGg] ?ln8= ug'{ ePsf] lyof] . To; ;dodf dnfO{ nfu]s]f lyof] ls cf}+nf5fk lj1fgsf] ckx]ngf eof] . t/ 5lTt; jif{sf] cgj/t cg'ej kl5 cfh xfd|f ljz]if1x?sf] k|ltj]bg x]]bf{ pxfFFsf] cg'ejhGo 1fg 7Ls / ;To /x]5 eGg] lg:sif{df k'Ug afWo ePsf] 5' . cfh dnfO{ cg'ej eO/x]sf] 5 ls lj1fg 7Ls / ;To xf] t/ ;a} ljz]if1sf] ;a} k|ltj]bgx? j}1flgs x'g ;Sbf] /x]g5 . NofKr]sf] ;DaGWfdf slDtdf cf7f]6f /]vfu'0f ldn]s]f 5 / gd"gf / ljjflbt 5fkx?aLrsf] k/:k/sf] >[vtf jf s|da4tf (Chain of custody) vnalnPsf] 5}g tyf s'g} Pp6f ;Dd klg ˆm/s /]vfu'0f 5}g eGg] s'/f k|dfl0ft x'G5 eg] lg:sif{ ;xL / ;To x'G5 . x:tfIf/sf] ;Dawdf OG;fˆmstf{n] ;d]t x]g{ a'emg / ;Demg ;Sg] u/L ;/n efiffdf ;lrq kof{Kt ;+Vofdf n]vgu'0fx?sf] k'g/fj[lQ ePsf] b]lvg] / sf/0f ;lxtsf] tL n]vgu'0fx?sf] AofVof u/LPsf], s'g} c;+a4 tYo gePsf], j:t'lgi7 /fo k|ltj]bgn] dfq ;Tosf] k|ltlglwTj u/]sf] x'G5 . lg:sif{ ;xL 5 jf 5}g eGg] s'/f w]/} h;f] k/LIf0f k4ltn] klg lgwf{/0f ub{5 . lsg s;/L / s'g k4ltaf6 lgSn]s]f lg:sif{ xf] eGg] s'/f k|d'v x'G5 . olb k4lt ;xL 5, uGtAo :yfgdf cjZo k'luG5, t/ af6f] g} lal/Psf] 5 eg] uGtAodf k'Ug ;Dej x'b}g . q'6L /lxt tl/sfn] k/LIf0f ul/Psf] 5 eg] lg:sif{ klg ;xL g} lg:s]sf] x'G5 . t/ h'g;'s} lj1fgsf] klg cfˆgf] ;Ldf x'G5 . Tof] ;Ldf pn+3g ul/Psf] 5 eg] /fo ljz]if1sf] ge} ;fwf/0f AolQmsf] dfq x'g hfG5 . gd"gf 5gf]6 b]lv lg:sif{ lgSnFbf ;Ddsf] s|da4 >[+vnf st} r'F8]sf] jf e+u ePsf] 5}g / l;4fGtfg's"n k/LIf0f ul/P]s]f 5 eGg] s'/f l;4 x'g] u/L tof/ ul/Psf] k|ltj]bg dfq j}1flgs x'G5 .
ljz]if1sf] cfTdlgi7 /foM xfn} Pp6f ljz]if1sf] /fo k|ltj]bgsf] ;DaGwdf ;af{]RRf cbfntsf] ;+o'Qm Ohnf;df ax; ub}{ lyPF, Pshgf dfggLo GofofwLzHo"af6 k|Zg cfof], tkfOn] g} xfdLnfO{ tflnd lbFbf ljz]if1sf] /fodf of] of] s'/f o;/L v'nfOPsf] x'g'k5{, tL ;a} s'/f OG;fˆm stf{n] x]/L tYo / To;sf] AofVof 7Ls b]lvP k|df0fdf u|x0f ug'{ k5{, ljz]if1n] n]v]sf tYox? OG;fˆm stf{n] x]g{ a'emg k|ltj]bgaf6 ;lsb}g eg] k|df0fdf lng x'Gg eGg' x'Gof] / tkfOn] lbg] /fo k|ltj]bgx?df tL ;a} s'/fx? v'nfOPsf x'GYf]] , t/ of] k|ltj]bgdf tkfOn] eGg' ePsf] s'g} klg tYo st} pNn]v ul/Psf] b]lvb}g . ca eGg' xf]; of] /fo k|ltj]bgnfO{ s;/L k|df0fdf u|x0f ug]{ < of] k|Zgsf] pQ/ lbg Tof] k|ltj]bgsf] cg'xf/af6 d ;dy{ lyOg . Tof] k|ltj]bgsf] lg:sif{ 7Ls eP klg, lnvt k/LIf0f ubf{ clgjfo{ ?kdf b]vfpg' kg]{ n]vgu'0fx?sf] k'g/fa[lQ b]vfOPsf] lyPg . cfTdlgi7 /fo lyof] . lg:sif{ s;/L lgsflnPsf] xf] eGg] s'/f st} pNn]v lyPg . lrqjt b[Zo (Pictorial appearance) sf] cfwf/df dfq lg:sif{ lgsflnPsf] lyof], o:tf] k4lt ck"0f{ xf] . t;y{ lj1fg ;To ePklg ;a} ljz]if1sf] ;a} /fo j}1flgs x'b}g eGg] s'/f klg TolTts} ;To xf] .
slQklg hfg]s]f 5}g eGg]s'/f hfg]M ca 8LPgPsf] ljifodf rrf{ u/f}+ . Pp6f csf]{ d'2fdf ;af{]Rr cbfntsf] ;+o'Qm Ohnf;df 8LPgP ljz]if1sf] k|ltj]bgdf AofVof u/L /x]sf] lyP++ . olQs}df Ps hgf dfggLo GofofwLzHo"af6 k|Zg cfof], tkfOnfO{ t xfdLn] x:tfIf/ / cf}+nf5fk ljz]if1 dfq 7fg]sf lyof}+, 8LPgPsf] klg ljz]if1 s;/L aGg' eof] < xfdL klg o; ljifosf] ljz]if1 xf]Ogf}{+ . tkfO{ klg xf]Og . xfdLn] tkfO{sf] egfOnfO{ s;/L ljZjf; ug]{ < egL d]/f] ax;sf] ;Totfdf z+sf ul/of] . xf], d 8LPgPsf] ljz]if1 x'F eg]/ pkl:yt ePsf] lyOg, sfg"g Aoj;foLsf] x}l;otn] pkl:yt ePsf] lyP+ . o; ljifosf] ljz]if1 x"+ eg]/ bfaL klg ulb{g . h]hlt k9+],hfg+], l;s]+ ;DalGwt ljifosf ljz]if1x?, ljb]zL ljZjljBfnox?df k9fpg] ljb\jfgx?n] n]v]sf s[ltx?, pgLx?n] k9fpg]u/]sf] Power Point sf kf7\o ;fduLx?, ljb]zL sfg"g Aoj;foLx? sf /rgfx?, ljb]zL cbfntx?n] u/]sf km};nfx?, xfd|f ljz]if1x?n] lbPsf k|ltj]bg, askqaf6 b]lvg] s'/fx? / d'2fsf] tYosf] cfwf/df 6]s]/ ax; ug]{ u5'{ . cf+}nf5fk jf x:tfIf/ ;DaGwdf klg sfg"g Aoj;foLsf] x}l;otn] dfq ax; ug]{ xf], ljz]if1sf] x}l;otn] xf]Og . ljz]if1n] ax; ub{}g . p;n] ask1 dfq u5{ . hL/xsf] pQ/ lbG5 . d cfˆ}mn] uf8L rnfpg ;lSbg t/ af6f] gb]v]sf] rfnsnfO uGtAo :yfgdf k'Ug] af6f] cjZo b]vfpg ;Sb5' . rfnsn] af6f] lj/fPsf] 5 jf ;xL lbzf tˆ{m uPsf] 5 eGg] s'/f cjZo osLg ug{ ;Sb5' . ;Dat\ @)#).)#! ;fn lt/ /fsLo lj1fg k|lti7fg (RONAST) af6 cfof]hgf ePsf] Pp6f a[xb uf]i7Ldf efu ln+bf Pshgf ljb\jfgaf6 o; ljifosf] sfo{kq k]z ePsf] lyof] . To;af6 d lgs} k|efljt ePsf] lyPF . To; ;do b]lv g} of] ljifodf d]/f] ?lr a9g yfNof] t/ ;Lldt kf7\o ;fdu|Laf6 cWoog ug{ kfPsf] lyOg+ . ;Dat @)%$ ;fn df g]kfn ljlwlj1fg ;dfh (Nepal Forensics Society ) sf] ;+:yfks cWoIfsf] x}l;otn] sfd ug{ yfn]b]lv :jb]zL Pj+ ljb]zL ljlwlj1fg ljz]if1x? / lrlsT;sx? ;d]t ;+usf] ghLssf] ;DaGwn] ljlwlj1fgsf ljleGg ljifox?sf] uf]i7L, tflnd / ;efx?df efulng] df}sf ldNof] . cWoog ;feu|Lx? e]6fpg ;lhnf] eof] . cem ?lr a9g yfNof] . ut s]xL jif{ b]lv j]asf] ;xof]uaf6 kf7\o ;fdu|Lx? hltklg pknAw x'g yfn]] . d]/f] k9fOn] ult kfof] . g]kfndf klg o; ljifosf] k/LIf0f ug]{ Aoj:yf eof] . /fli6|\o ljlwlj1fg k|of]uzfnfsf ljz]if1x?;+usf] lgs6 ;DaGwdf /x]/ cWoog 5nkmnsf] qmd hf/L g} /Xof] . OG6/g]6sf] ;'ljwf ePsf]n] ljb]zL ljb\jfgx?sf] s[lt, ljz]if1x?sf] n]v, pgLx?sf] cg'ejhGo 1fg / j]aaf6} k|fKt x'g nfUof] / ljb\jfgx?;+u ;Dks{ klg a9\of] . pgLx?sf] ;Nnfx ;'emfj / k7gLo ;fdu|Lx? k|;:t kfpg yfn]++ . k|ltlbg slDtdf kfFr 306f lgoldt ?kn] cWoog ug{ ;'lj3f eof] . ga'em]sf / z+sfnfu]sf s'/fx? j]asf] ;xof]uaf6 g} ljZjsf ljz]if1x?;+uaf6 z+sf ;dfwfg ug{ ;'lawf eof] . tfklg 8LPgP?kL ;fu/sf] Pp6f yf]kf] ;Ddklg kfg ug{ ;s]sf] 5}g . hlthlt kfg ub}{ hfG5' ToltTolt ltvf{ a9b} uPsf] 5 . dfggLo GofofwLzHo"n] d]/f] 1fgsf] ljzifodf ug'{ ePsf] z+sf ;To g} h:tf] nfU5 . To;sf/0fn] P}n] ;Ddsf] cWoogaf6 d}n] s]hfh] eg], slQklg hfg]s]f 5}g eGg]s'/f hfg+] .
Goflos clwsf/ k|Tofof]hg x'g ;sb}g M lj1fgn] tf]s]sf] sfo{ljlw jf k4lt k"/f u/]/ lgsflnPsf] lg:sif{ xf] jf xf]Og, ljZjsf cbfntx?n] ckgfO cfPsf l;4fGtfg's"n /fo k|ltj]bg 5 jf 5}g eGg] s'/f sfg"g Aoj;foL / OG;fˆm stf{n] klg hfGg} kg]{ x'G5 . lsgls Goflos clwsf/ k|Tofof]hg x'g ;sb}g . ljz]if1n] o;f] eg]sf]n], o;} x'G5 egL 7x/ ubf{ cbfntsf] Goflos clwsf/ k|Tofof]hg x'ghfG5 . t;y{ s'g} klg lj1fgsf] lg:sif{ lgsfNg] k|ljlw, tl/sf / Tof] lj1fgsf] ;Ldf/]vf of kl/l3 s] slt x'G5 eGg] s'/fsf] 1fg t OG;fˆm lbg] / lbnfpg] b'a} kIfn] hfGg} kg]{ ljifo xf] eGg] s'/fdf b'Odt x'g ;Sb}g . OG;fˆm stf{n] xfdL ljz]if1 xf]Ogf} eg]/ ljz]if1af6 cfPsf] /fonfO{ cfFvf lrDn]/ h:tfsf] t:t} ?kdf lg0f{o ug'{ Goflos b[li6n] ldNb}g . ljz]if1 klg dflg; g} xf] . OZj/ xf]Og . OZj/af6 dfq q'6L x'b}g . p;sf] /fodf klg q'6L x'g ;Sb5 . t;y{ ljz]if1sf] /fo q'6L /lxt 5 jf 5}g eGg] s'/f OG;fkm lbg] / lbnfpg] b'a} kIfn] ljrf/ ug}{ kg]{ x'G5 . cWoog ug}{ kg]{ x'G5 . To;} sf/0fn] OG;fˆm lbg] / lbnfpg] b'a} kIfsf] gfdsf] cufl8 ljb\jfg (Learnet) eGg] ljz]if0f ylkPsf] xf] . jf:tjdf ;a} ljifo ;a}n] hfg]sf] x'Fb}g, hfGg ;Dej klg x'Fb}g . o:tf] cj:yfdf s;/L ;xL tl/sfn] ljz]if1sf] /fosf] ljZn]if0f ug]{ eGg] ;Gbe{df ;g\ !((@ sf] cd]l/sL ;+3Lo ;jf]{Rr cbfntn] Daubert sf] d'2fdf k|ltkfbg u/]s]f l;4fGtdf ljb\jfg kf7sx?sf] Wofgfsif{0f u/fpg rfxG5' . h'g l;4fGt cfh kfZrfTo b]zsf cbfntx?n] ckgfO{ cfPsf 5g\ . lxhf] cfh s'g} klg ljz]if1sf] /fo ;dfj]z ePsf] d'2fdf kIf jf ljkIfsf] tˆ{maf6 Daubert sf] gfd ;dfj]]z gul/Psf] cd]l/sL ˆ}m;nf e]6fpg ufxf/f] k5{ .[1]
sfg"g / 8LPgPsf] aLrdf d'v gldn]sf] kZg MM
8LPgP s'g} cnf}lss a:t' xf]Og, xfdL ;a}sf] z/L/df x'g] j:t' xf] . ;g\ !**$ df cn]s h]k|mL n] 8LPgP cfdf afa'af6 ;Gtfgdf ;/]/ cfpF5 eGg] s'/f kQf nufsf x'g\ . t/ o;sf] k|of]u s'gs'g s'/fdf x'g ;S5 eGg] ;DaGwdf s'g} ljrf/ u/]sf lyPgg\ . AolQmsf] kl/ro :yflkt ug{ 8LPgP ;xfos x'G5 elgP klg k|of]u x'g ;s]sf] lyPg . To; ;dodf pgsf] cg';Gwfgsf] gtLhfnfO{ ;a}n] ljZjf; u/]sf klg lyPgg\ . To;}n] s/La Ps;o jif{;Dd of] lj1fgsf] s'g} pkof]u x'g ;s]g . klxnf] k6s ck/fw cg';Gwfgdf ;g\ !(*^ df ;++o'Qm clw/fHosf] k|x/Laf6 o;sf] k|of]u ePsf] xf] . k|To]s AolQmsf] 8LPgP ˆm/s x'G5, afa'cfdfaf6 h:tfsf]t:t} ?kdf ;/]/ cfpF5, Pp6} dflg;sf] 8LPgP ldN5 eGg] s'/fdf s'g} ljjfb 5}g . t/, ljjfb 5, lgsflnPsf] 8LPgP z'4 xf] jf xf]Og < s;/L eGg] ls lgsflnPsf] 8LPgP z'4 g} xf] < o;sf] cfwf/ k|df0f / sf/0f s]xf] < cfh log} k|Zgdf d'v ldn]sf 5}gg\ . o;sf] sf/0fx? pbfx/0f :j?k s]xL tn oyf:yfgdf pNn]v ug]{ k|of; u/]s]f 5' .
8LPgP (DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid) a+zfg'ut ;b}{ cfpg] Ps k|sf/sf] a:t' (Material ) xf] . of] a9Ldf rf/f]6f /;fogx?af6 ag]sf]] Pp6f ;+o'Qm OsfOsf] gfd xf] . o;nfO{ nucleatides klg eG5g\ . 8LPgP nueu Ps O~rsf] bznfv efusf] Ps efu 3g+O{rdf [2] k]fsf] k/]/ /x]sf] x'G5 .
of] afa'cfdfaf6 ;+tfgdf ;/]/ cfpg] s/f]8f}+ sf]lzsfx? ( Cells) df ljBdfg /xg] / ;dfg (Identical) ljz]iftf o'Qm kbfy{ xf] . clwsf+z 8LPgPx?n] cfk'mn] cfˆm}nfO{ g} s}of}+ k|lt agfpFb5g\ . gofF+ sf]lzsf aGbf k'/fgf] s]flzsfdf /x]sf] cfdfafa'af6 ;/]/ cfPsf] 8LPgPx? (Double Helix) klg h:tfsf] t:t} ;/]/ cfpF5g\ . rf/f]6f /;fogx?sf] gfdsf] klxnf] cIf/x? A, T, G / C sf] [i] s|da4tf (Sequence ) g} kl/rofTds ljz]iftf jf u''0f xf] . z+lst / 1ft gd"gfsf] ;|f]t Pp6} xf] jf xf]Og egL osLg ug]{ cfwf/ xf] . csf]{ zAbdf 1ft gd"gf / c1ft gd"gf Pp6} dflg;sf] xf] jf xf]Og egL osLg ug]{ cfwf/ xf] . /;fogx?sf] klxnf] cIf/nfO{ cfwf/ zLnf ( Base) klg eGb5g\ . log} cfwf/zLnfx?sf] sf/0fn] dflg;df Pscsf{]sf] :j?kdf p:t} jf ˆm/s b]lvg] x'G5 . cd's aRrfsf] cg'xf/ 7\ofSs} cfˆgf] afa' jf cfdfsf] h:t} 5, eGg] ;'Gg] / b]Vg] klg u/]sf 5f}+ . afa' 5f]/fsf] cfFvf / s]zsf] /8=, gfs nfdf] 5f]6f,] /8=uf]/f] sfnf], z/L/sf] agfj6, xft v'6\6fsf] xf8sf] df]6fO,{ p+rfO{ cflbdf ;dfgtf klg b]v] s} 5f}+, afa' 5f]/fdf o:tf] ;dfgtf x'g'sf] sf/0f hfGg] pT;'stf ;a}nfO x'g' :jefljs xf] . afa' 5f]/fdf o:tf] ;dfgtf x'g'sf] sf/0f xf], afa' cfdfaf6 5f]/f 5f]/Ldf ;/]/ cfPsf] 8LPGfP cfwf/zLnfsf] ;dfg s|da4tf .
8LPgP lj1fgsf] dfGotfM
! k|To]s hLjsf] cfdf afa'df /x] ePsf] 8LPgP ;Gtfgdf ;/]/ cfpF5 . To;sf/0fn] 5f]/f 5f]/Lsf] sf]lzsfx?df x'g] 8LPgP / afa'cfdfsf] sf]lzsfdf /x]sf] 8LPgP klg ;dfg x'g' k5{ .
@ dflg;sf] guLrsf] xfFufsf] gft]bf/sf] 8LPgPx?df klg s]xL ;dfgtf x'G5 . bfh"efOdf Pp6} cfdfafa'sf] ;+tfg x'g] ePsf]n] a9L g} ;dfgtf x'G5 . olb h'DNofxf ePdf ztk|ltzt g} ;dfgtf x'G5 . t/ ;]tf] /utdf dq of] x'G5, /ftf]df x'Gg.
# z/L/sf] ;a} 7fpFsf] sf]lzsfdf /xg] 8LPgPsf] ljz]iftf ;dfg x'G5 . cyf{t 6'KkLsf] /pFsf] h/fdf x'g] / v'6\6fsf] g8+=sf] h/fdf /xg] /ut jf y's, l;+ufg, k;Lgf / aLo{ cflb zfl//Ls cjoasf] sf]lzsfdf x'g] 8LPgsf] ljz]iftf ;dfg x'G5 . t;y{ 36gf:yndf kfOg] z/L/af6 lg:sflift s'g} klg a:t' / z++lst AolQmsf] /ut, y"s, k;Lgf jf To:t} s'g} a:t'df kfOg] 8LPgPsf] ;dfg ljz]iftf x'g] ePsf]n], k/:k/ t'ngf ubf{ tL gd"gf / z{lst 8LPgPsf] ;|f]t Pp6} xf] jf xf]Og egL osLg x'g ;Sbt 5 .
sf]lzsfx? (Cells ) M dflg;sf] z/L/df c;+Vo sf]lzsfx? (Cells) df oL cfwf/zLnfx? /x]sf x'G5g\ . /ut, df+zk]zL, dl:tZs, z'sf0f' , cflb sf]lzsfx? (blood cells, sperm cells and others.) df/x] a;]sf x'G5g\ . csf]{ zAbdf eGg] xf] eg], dflg;sf] z/L/ log} sf]lzsfx?af6 ag]sf] x'G5 . oL z/L/sf ljleGg c+ux?df x'g] sf]lzsfx?df 8LPgP cjl:yt x'G5g\ . Pp6} dflg;sf] z/L/sf] h'g;'s} 7fpFsf] sf]lzsfdf /xg] 8LPgPsf] u'0f -s|da4tf_ pxL dflg;sf] z/L/sf] h'g;'s} 7fpFsf] sf]lzsfdf kfOg] 8LPgPsf] s|da4tfdf Ps?ktf / ;dfgtf x'g] ePsf] sf/0fn] ck/fw cg';Gwfgdf of] lj1fgsf] k|of]u x'g nfu]s]f xf] . ljz]if1x?n] c1ft gd"gf / 1ft gd"gfx?af6 8LPgP lgsfn]/ b'a} gd"gfx?sf] ;|f]t Pp6} xf] jf xf]Og egL /fo AoQm ub{5g\ .
8LPgPx? z'qmf0f' tyf l8+a (Sperm and egg) sf] dfWodaf6 e|'0f (Offspring) df Pp6f k':tfaf6 csf]{ k':tfdf ;b}{ cfpF5g\ . Pp6f z'qmf0f'sf] sf]lzsfdf nueu tLg ljlnog cfwf/zLnfx? s|da4 ?kdf cyf{t cfdf afa'sf] sf]lzsfdf ePsf] cfwf/zLnfx? (Bases) sf] s|da4?kdf g} aRrfdf klg ;b}{ cfp{5g\ . To:t} k|Tos l8++asf] sf]lzsfdf /xg] tLg lalnog g} cfwf/zLnfx? klg s|da4?kdf ;/]sf x'g5g\ . To;} sf/0fn] afa' cfdf / 5f]/f 5f]/Lsf] 8LPgP k/:k/ t'ngf ub{f Ps} k|sf/sf] b]lvof] eg] afa' cfdf cd's cd's x'g\ eGg] z+sf/lxt ?kdf osLg x'G5 . olb ldn]g eg], xf]Og eGg] klg kSsf cfwf/ x'G5 . k|To]s AolQmsf] cfwf/zLnfx?sf] s|da4tf k[ysk[ys x'g] x'bf o;n] Pscsf]{ AolQmnfO{ k[ys klg ub{5 . t/ lj1fgn] t]fs]sf] zt{ k'/fu/L a:t'lgi7 ?kdf q'6L /lxt tl/sfn] lgsflnPsf] lg:sif{ x'g' k5{ .
k/LIf0f k4lt
! ;a{k|yd z+lst / 1ft gd"gfx? (Samples) ;+sng ug'{ k5{{ . gd"gf ;+sngdf q'6L x'g ;S5 . Pp6fsf] gfddf csf]{ AolQmsf] gd"gf lnOPsf] jf PseGbf a9L dflg;sf] gd"gf ln+bf, Pp6fsf] gfd csf{]sf] gd"gfdf n]lvg klg ;S5 .
@ 8LPgP /x]sf] ljZjf; ul/Psf] a:t', h:tf] of}g b"/frf/ ;DaGwdf z's|f0f' jf /ut k/]sf] n'ufnfO{ Pp6f las/ (Tube) df z'4 kfgLdf /fVg' k5{ . olb kfgL cz'4 jf s'g} s'/f ldl;Psf] ePdf , lg:sif{ klg cz'4 g} x'G5 .
# To;nfO{ lglZrt ;do ;Dd lglZrt tfkdf -;fwf/0ftof #) ldg]6, (^=^ l8u|L ˆm/]g xfO6sf] tfkdf_ ttfpg' k5{ . tfks|dsf] cjlw jf tfk 36L a9L ePdf lg:sif{ klg tndfyL kg{ ;S5 .
$ pk/f]Qmfg';f/ z'4 kfgLdf ;fˆm ul/Psf] a:t'df xNsf detergent ld;fpg' k5{ . sdhf]/ sf]lzsfx? kfgLdf t}/]/ dfyL cfpF5g\ . ux|f}+ / zlQmzfnL sf]lzsfx? kLFbdf a:5g\ . t/ detergent sf] dfqf ldn]g eg] jf detergent g} klg cz'4 ePdf z'4?kdf 8LPgP glg:s]sf] klg x'g ;Sb5 .
% Centrifuge n] /ut jf z's|f0f'sf] sf]lzsfdf /x]sf ˆmf]xf]/ sr/fnfO{ 5'6|ofpF5 . 8LPgP /x]sf] sf]lzsf kLbdf a:g' k5{ . o:tf] ˆmf]xf]/f] sr/f /fd|f]u/L g5'l6\6Psf] klg x'g ;S5 .
^ las/sf] dflyNnf] efudf /x]sf] ˆmf]xf]/f]nfO{ ˆmfNg' k5{ . kLbdf /x]sf] ;f/ tTj dfq afFsL /xg' k5{ . of] ls|of af/af/ bf]x]f/\ofOG5 . cfjZostfg'P ;f/ zlQmzfnL detergent k|of]u u/]/ sf]lzsfnfO{ ˆmf]g'{ k5{ . sf]lzsf ˆ'm6]kl5 To; leq /x]sf] /;fogx? (adenine, thymine, guanine / cytosine) aflx/ lg:sG5g\ . o;/L 8LPgPkQf nufpg] / sf]lzsf ˆmf]g]{ k|s[ofdf k"0f{ ;fjwfgL ePg eg] lg:sif{ q'6L k"0f{ x'g hfG5 . log} rf/f]6f /;fogx?sf] gfdsf] klxnf] cIf/ a t g c x? 8LPgPsf] juL{s/0f xf] eGg ;lsG5 .
& c+Gtdf cToGt yf]/} dfqfdf z'4 8LPgP las/df /x]sf] x'G5 . o]f k/LIf0fsf] lgldQ kof{Kt x'b}g . t;y{ o;/L] z'4Ls/0f ul/Psf] 8LPgPnfO{ Enelyzer (Thermal – cycle) eGg] dzLg k|of]u u/]/ lkl;cf/ k4ltaf6 yf]/} gd"gfnfO{ klg w]/} agfOG5 .
* To; kl5 Solution df /fv]/ lglZrt tfkdf - ;fwf/0ftof @)$=* l8u|L ˆm/]g xfO6 _df ttfpg' kb{5 . ;]nfP kl5 k'gM oxL k|ls|of @) b]lv #) k6s ;Dd k'g/fa[lQ ug'{ k5{ . k|To]s k6ssf] k'g/fa[lQdf 8LPgPsf] ;+Vof s}of}+ u'0ffn] a[l4 xF'b} hfG5g\ . o; k|sf/ s]xLa]/df g} 8LPgP v/af}sf] ;+Vodf a[l4 x'G5g\ .
( DNA Sequencer eGg] dzLgn] o;sf] ljleGg If]q jf 7fpF jf Loci 5'6\ofpb5 .
!) l;;fsf] ljs/df gel / 8LPgP gd"gf dzLgdf /fv]/ las/sf] zL/df posetive current lbOG5 . sDKo"6/n] dzLgsf] 8]6f k9]/ u|fˆmsf] ?kdf pRr r'r'/fx? (Peaks) h:tf] 8LPgPsf] k|ltlglwTj ub{} b]vfpFb5g\ . of] u|fˆmnfO{ Electropherogram eGb5g\ . of] u|fˆmdf b]lvg] 8LPgP sf] lglZrt If]q jf Locus df a t g c sf] s|da4tf (sequences) sltk6s bf]xf]l/Psf 5g\ eGg] s'/fsf] tflnsf agfOG5 . o;/L z+lst / gd"gf 8LPgPaf6 lgsflnOPsf] u|fˆmaf6 tof/ ul/Psf] tflnsfsf c+sx? k/:k/ t'ngf ul/G5 . olb k|of]u ul/g] detergents , solutions / kfgLdf s]xL s'/f ldl;P/ cz'4 ePsf] /x]5 eg] jf pk/f]Qm k|lqmofdf s'g} q'6L /x]5 eg] z'4 8LPgP glg:s]sf] klg x'g ;S5 . q'6L eP/ A sf] 7fpFdf G lg:s]sf pbfx0f klg e]l6Psf] 5 .
l8PgP a[l4 / s|da4tf (Polymerase Chain Reaction: PCR, Short tendam Repeatation: STR)
8LPgP k/LIf0f ug{ pkof]u u/Lg] cfh kL;Lcf/ k4lt xf] . of] t]>f] k':tfsf] k4lt dflgG5 . o;sf] ljsf; s|d hf/L 5 . h:tf] dfi6/ b'uf{k|;fb pk|]tLn] NofKr] hfFRg] pks/0fsf] ?kdf ˆ'm6]sf] l;;Lsf] kL+bsf] n]G; agfPsf lyP, pgsf] ;dodf n]G; g]kfndf pknAw lyPg . kl5 n]G;, ;"Id bz{s o~q, sfnf] ;]t]f lgu]l6eaf6 ˆmf]6f] k|of]udf cfof] . cfh sDKo"6/n] tL ;a}sf] k|lt:yfkg u/]s]f 5 . cfjZostfg';f/sf] 7"nf] ˆmf]6f] agfP/ cWoog ug{ ;'ljwf ePsf] 5 . To:t} ;"Id 8LPgPnfO /a8 e}m tGsfP/, To;nfO{ ljleGg efudf juL{s/0f u/]/, Tof] ljeflht efudf /x]sf] /;fogx? ( a t g / c _ sf] ;++Vof u0fgfu/]/, s] slt / s'g s'g /;fogx? lgl:rt If]qdf s] slt km/sdf k'g/fa[lQ ePsf 5g\ eGg] u0fgf u/]/ k/LIf0f ug{ sDKo"6/n] 7"nf] ;xof]u u/]sf] 5 .
kL;Lcf/ sf] pkof]lutf
lk;Lcf/ cfˆ}mn] DNA juL{s/0f u/L 5'6|ofpg] jf t'ngf ug]{ xf]Og, Sofd]/fn] kmf]6f]af6 cfkm} NofKr]sf] juL{s/0f ug]{ xf]Og . o;n] t NofKr]sf] juL{s/0f ug{ ;'ljwf dfq k|bfg ug]{ xf] . To:t} kLl;cf/ d]lzgn] 8LPgP auL{s/0f ug{ ;xof]u ub{5 . dfyL pNn]lvt k4lt cg';f/ 8LPgP ;f/ lgsfNbf ljleGg ?kdf ljz]if1n] yfxf g} gkfpg] u/L gd""gfnfO{ b'lift kfg]{ ;Defjgf cTolws x'G5 . k|of]uzfnfsf] jftfj/0fLo cj:yf, zLt tfk cflbn] o;nfO{ k|efj kfb{5 . o:t} cg]sf}+ sf/0fx?af6 8LPgP b'lift [ii] x'g ;Sg] k|jn cj:yf /xL/xG5 . dflg;sf] :jf; k|:jf;, k;Lgf, z/L/ sGofpbf klg 8LPgP b'lift x'g ;Sb5 . o;/L 8LPgP b'lift x'g ;Sg] s'/f tˆ{m k|of]uzfnfdf sfd ug]{ ;a} sd{rf/Lx?n] ljrf/ u/]/ ;'/Iffsf] plrt Aoj:yfkg gu/]sf] klg x'g;Sb5 . To;sf/0fn] gtLhf klg ˆm/s kg]{ ;Defjgfx? cTolws x'G5 .
kL;Lcf/ k4ltdf cfˆ}mn] klg 8LPgPnfO{ k|efj kfg{ ;Sb5 . olb k|f/lDes 8LPgP /fd|f] cj:yfdf /x]5 eg] klg kL;Lcf/ k4ltn] Pp6fdfq 8LPgPsf] klg s/f]8f}+ k|lt agfO lbG5 . h:tf] s'g} Pp6f lnvtsf] ˆmf]6f]skL, Tof]ˆmf]6f] skLsf] klg ˆmf]6f]skL To:fsf] klg ˆmf]]6f] skL ub} hfFbf hlthlt w]/} ˆmf]6f] skL x'G5, Tolt a9L g} :ki6 glthf lg:sG5 / xfdLn] /fdf|]u/L k9g ;Sb}gf} , To:t} 8LPgPdf klg Pp6faf6 csf]{ To;af6 csf]{ ub}{ ˆmf]6f] skL ub}{ hfFbf lg:sg] 8LPgPx? sf] :t/ sd;n x'b} hfG5 [iii] / To:tf] 8LPgP nfO{ sDKo"6/sf] ;ˆ6j]/n] k9g ;Sb}g jf k9] klg cz'4 k95 / lg:sif{ ˆm/s kg{ ;S5 . plrt ;'/Iffsf] cefjdf lg:s]sf] 8LPgP ljj/0fsf] u|fˆm (Electropherogram) g} cz'4 / q'6Lk"0f{ x'g;S5 .
s]xL k|fljlws zAbx?x?sf]cy{
nf]s; (Locus)
nf]s; (Locus) eg]sf]] nf];L (Loci) zAbsf] Psarg xf] . 8LPgP Ps csf]{ ;+u hf]l8P/ >[vnfa4 (Interlocked) ?kdf u'h'lN6P/ /x]sf] x'G5 . nf];Ln] 8LPgP /x]sf] :yfg jf cjl:ylt (Location) atfp 5 . s|f]df]hf]ddf s'g 7fpdf s'g cfwf/zLnf /x]sf] 5 eGg] s'/f o;n] bzf{pFb 5 . Tof] :yfg ljz]ifsf] gfd g} nf];L of nf]s; of nf]s]zg of If]q xf] . 8LPgP k/:k/ t'ngf ubf{ gd"gf / ;+lst AolQmsf] ;dfg 7fpF jf If]q (Location) df s] slt cfwf/zLnf ( ATG / C) x?sf] k'g/fa[lQ (Repeatation) ePsf] 5 egL cWoog ug{sf] nflu o;sf] dxTjk"0f{ e"ldsf x'G5 . Ps 7fpFsf] 8LPgP u'0f csf]{ 7fpFdf /x]sf] 8LPgP u'0f ;+u t'ngf ul/of] eg] /fo c;To x'G5 . h:tf] bflxg] xftsf] cf}+nf5fk ;+u afof xftsf] cf}+nf5fk t'ngf ubf{ lg:sg] lg:sif{ q'6L k"0f{ x'G5 .
s|]fdf]hf]d (Chromosom)
8LPgPx? u'h'lN6P sl:;P/ kf]sf] k/]/ /x]sf] kf]sf] sf] gfd g} s|f]df]hf]d (Chromosom) xf] . o; leq 8LPgPx? cfk;df Ps}7fpFDff 6fF;LP/ /x]sf x'G5g\ . dflg;sf]] s||]fdf]hf]d @# hf]8L x'G5g\ . Pp6f hf]8L cfdfaf6 / csf]{ afa'af6 ;/]/ cfPsf] x'G5 . oL s|f]d]fhf]dx?sf] cfsf/ klxnf] 7'nf] / To; kl5sf s|dfg';f/ Tof] eGbf ;fgf] x'+b} uPsf xG'5g\ , ;'lawfsf] lgldQ o;nfO{ ! b]lv @# ;Dd s|df+s lbP/ z+s]t klg ul/G5 . Pp6f qmdf+ssf] gd"gf / csf]{ s|df+sf] s||f]d]fhf]ddf /x]sf] 8LPgP k/:k/ t'ngf ul/of] eg] lg:sif{ q'6Lk"0f{ x'G5 . t;y{ gd"gf / ljjflbt sf] s|f]df]hf]d Pp6} :yfgsf] clgjfo{ x'g' k5{ . h:tf] cf}+nff5fkdf h'g cf}+nfsf] ljjflbt 5fkxf], gd"gf klg ToxL cf}+nfsf] 5fk ;+u t'ngf ug'{ k5{, To:t} xf] . nf]s;n] ln+u klg osLg u5{ . :qL ln+usf] s|f]d]fhf]dsf] hf]8Ldf b'a}sf] cfsf/ ;dfg x'G5 / b'a}nfO{ XX elgG5 eg] k'ln+usf] s|f]df]hf]dsf] hf]8Ldf Pp6f 7"nf] / cs]{f ;fgf] cfsf/sf] x'G5 . 7"nf]nfO X / ;gf]nfO{ Y gfdfs/0f ul/Psf] x'G5 . o;nfO{ ;"Idbz{s o~qaf6 x]g{ klg ;lsG5 . ljz]if1n] k]z ug]{ tflnsfdf jf XY n]lvPsf] x'G5 . x n]lvPsf] 5 eg] dlxnf / Y 5 eg] k'?ifsf] 8LPgP xf] eg]/ a'lemG5 .
8LPgP u'0f (Allele)
8LPgP u'0f (Allele)
PlnN; eg]sf] s|f]df]hf]dsf] s'g} lglZrt 7fpF jf :yfgdf jf If]qdf /x]sf] ljz]iftf jf u'0f jf c?af6 ˆm/s of leGgtf (variations) bzf{pg] cfwf/zLnfx?sf] s|da4tf x'g\ . NofKr]s]f /]vf Ridge characteristics NffO{ g]kfnLs/0f ubf{ d}n] /]vfu'0f / x:tfIf/sf] writing chareateristics nfO{ n]vgu'0f eGg] gfdfs/0f u/L ;Dat @)#! ;fn b]vL n]Vg], af]Ng] / k|ltj]bgx?df klg pNn]v ug]{ u/]sf]n] cfh oL zAbx? sfg"gL If]qdf ;a}af6 a'lemg] ePsf] 5 . To;} u/L 8LPgPdf klg c+u]|hL sf] Allele zAbnfO{ g]kfnLdf 8LPgu'0f eGg pko'Qm 7fGb5' .
u'0f:t/xLg (Degraded ) / ld>0f (Mixture) M 8LPgP k/LIf0f ug{ u'0f:t/Lo gd"gfx? rflxG5 . 8LPgP u'0fbzf{pg] u|fkmsf] r'r'/fx?sf] pFrfO afofFaf6 bfofF tˆ{msf s|dzM xf]+rf] x'b} uPsf] x'g ;S5 . u'0f:t/xLg gd"gfx?af6 lgsflnPsf] 8LPgP sDKo"6/sf] ;ˆ6j]/n] k9g g;Sg] klg x'G5 . o:tf]df s]xL r'r'/fx?sf] pFrfO{ 36fOlbG5 . k[i7e"ledf s]jn lsld{/] /]vf (noise) cfPsf] 5 eg] r'r'/f] g} gb]lvg jf b]lvP klg ;xL tYosf] k|ltlgwTj gug]{ x'g ;Sb5g\ . Ps eGbf a9L dflg;sf] gd"gf ldl;Psf] 5 eg], s'g ;xL xf] egL 5'6|ofpg c;Dej g} x'G5 . k|To]s AolQmsf] 8LPgPdf cfdf / afa'sf] b'O6f 8LPgPsf r'r'/fx? b]lvg' k5{ . s}n] sfxL ljleGg sf0fn] Pp6f dfq r'r'/f] b]lvg ;S5 / csf]{ sDKo"6/n] b]vfpg ;Sb}g . o:tf] cj:yfdf ljz]if1x?n] cGbfhn] tflnsfdf c++s n]lvlbPsf klg x'G5g\ . To:tf] ePsf] cj:Yfdf ljz]if1x?df g} klg ljleGg dt x'g ;S5 . o:tf] dt jf AofVof cfTdlgi7 x'G5 / j}1flgs x'b}g .
gd"gfdf ljleGg ;|f]taf6 ld>0f x'g ;Sb5 . Ps eGbf a9L AolQmsf] gd"gf ldl;g ;Sb5 . gd"gf ;++snsf] / k/LIfssf] g} klg kl;gf, y"s jf :jf;af6 klg ld>0f ePsf] x'g ;Sb5 . Ps eGbf a9L dflg;sf] o:tf] zf/Ll/s cjoa ldl;Psf] /x]5 eg] +Pp6f u|fˆmdf b'O eGbf a9L r'r'/fx? b]lvg [;Sb5 . o:tf] cj:yfdf s'g r'r'/f] ld>0faf6 cfPsf] xf] egL osLg ubf{ q'6L x'g] ;Defjg k|an x'G5 .
r'r'/f] x/fpg' Allelic Dropout M k|To]s gd"gfaf6 b'O6f r'r'/f b]lvg' kg]{df s}n] sfxL sDKo"6/n] Pp6f r'r'/f] dfq e]6fP/ Tof] Pp6f dfq n]Vg ;Sb5 . s}n] sfxL c;To r'r'/f] (Spurious Peaks) klg b]vfpF5 . o:tf cltl/St r'r'/fx?nfO "technical artifacts" elgG5 . gd"gfdf 8LPgPsf] ;+Vof yf]/} eP/ jf u'0f:t/xLg gd"gf ePdf o:tf] x'g ;Sb 5 . ljjflbt / c;Da4 AolQm ;d]t b'a}sf] g} u'0f:t/xLg 8LPgPsf] ld>0f ePsf] /x]5 eg], Pp6f r'r'/f] Pshgfsf] / csf]{ r'r'/f] csf]{ AolQmsf] eP/ b'O6f dfq r'r'/f] ag]sf] cj:yfdf 8LPgP u'0fsf] k|f]ˆmfon g} kl/jt{g x'g ;S5 . o:tf] cj:yfdf z+sf/lxt?kdf c;Ton] klg ;Tosf] ?k wf/0f ug{ ;Sb5 .
pbfx/0ffy{ x]l/of];\ . of] u|fkmdf D3S1358 df r'r'/fx?sf] c+s !^,!* / !( b]lvPsf] 5 . !( sf] r'r'/f]g} b]lvPsf] 5}g . vWa df r'r'/f]lagfsf] b]lvPsf] !^ sf] hf]8Ldf x'g' kg]{ csf]{ r'r'/f] g} x/fPsf] 5 .
/;fogx?sf] z'4tfM 8LPgP k/LIf0f ug]{ /;fogx? ahf/af6 v/Lb ug'{ k5{ . 8LPgP ;f/ lgsfNg k|of]u x'g] pks/0f o'Qmafs; (Kits) ljldGg sDkgLx?n] las|L ub{5g\ . ;a} sDkgLx?af6 tof/ ul/Psf pks/0f jf /;fogx?af6 Pp6} glthf gcfpg klg ;S5 . [3]
8LPgP u|fkm (Electropherogram)
8LPgP k/LIf0f k|of]uzfnfsf] k|ltj]bgdf hlthgfsf] gd"gf k/LIf0f ul/Psf] x'G5, Tolt cf]6f u|fˆm lrq (Electropherogram_ / To;}af6 tof/ ul/Psf] tflnsf klg clgjfo{ ?kdf k]z ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ . s'gs'g aF"bfdf k/LIf0f ul/Psf] xf] eGg] s'/f u|fkm / tflnsfn] bzf{Psf] x'G5 . of] tflnsfaf6 u|fˆm a'emg ;'ljwf klg x'G5 . x:tfIf/ k/LIf0fdf n]vgu'0f ( writing charecterstics ) x?sf] t'ngf ul/G5 , cf}+7f5fkdf /]vfu'0fx? ( Ridge charecteristics ) sf] t'ngf ul/G5 eg] 8LPgP k/LIf0fdf 8LPgPu'0f ( Alleles ) x?sf] t'ngfTds cWoog ul/G5 . s|da4tf (Sequences) eGg] klg 8LPgPsf] kl/rofTsd ljz]iftf xf] . kL;Lcf/ / sDKo"6/sf] ;xfotfaf6 u|fˆmsf] ?kdf lgsflnPsf] 8LPgP u'0fx?sf] ljj/0f Electropherogram xf] . o]f sDKo"6/ lrq xf] . oxL lrqaf6 lgsflnPsf] tflnsf (Table) xf] . gd"gfx?sf] ;|f]t Pp6} eP u|fkm jf tflnsfdf b]lvg] 8LPgPu/0fsf] c+s a/fa/ x'G5, ;|f]t km/s eP, c+s klg km/s km/s x'G5 .
ck|ToIf q'6LM jf:tjdf h'g;'s} ljifosf] ljz]if1n] klg s]xL ckjfbdf afx]s cfkm'n] k/LIf0f u/L lgsfNg] lg:sif{ unt xf];\ eGg] wf/0ff lnPsf] x'b}g . tfklg dfyL pNn]v eP adf]lhd ljleGg sf/0fx?n] 8LPgP ;f/ lgsfNbf ck|ToIf ?kdf yfxf g} gx'g] u/L , q'6Lk"0f{ lg:sif{ lg:sg ;S5 eGg] s'/f ;}4flGts kIfaf6 b]lvG5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu s]xL cd]l/sL / s]xL a]nfotL 36gfx?nfO{ k|:t't ub{5' .
jfl;+u6g /fHo ck/fw k|of]uzfnf (Washington State crime lab) sf] k|ltj]bgx?
cd]l/sfsf] jflzu6g /fHosf] ck/fw k|of]uzfnfaf6 8LPgP k/LIf0f u/L lbOPsf k|ltj]bgx?sf] l;of6n kf]i6 eGg] klqsfsf cg';FGwftf kqsf/x?af6 ul/Psf] cg';Gwfgn] @))! b]lv @))$ h'nfO{ ;Dddf @# cf]6f /fo k|ltj]bgx?df q'6L e]l6Psf] lyof] . of] tYo ;f] klqsfsf] h'nfO{ @))$ df lj:t[t ?kdf k|sflzt ePsf] lyof] . clwsf+z k/LIf0fdf ljz]if1x?sf] cfKmg} y"s, kl;gf cflb af6 gd"gfdf ld>0f eP/ unt lg:sif{ lg:s]]sf] lyof] . of] s'/f k/LIfsx?n] kQ} kfpg ;s]sf lyPgg\ . k|lt/Iff ug]{ sfg"g Aoj;foLx?sf] cg'/f]wdf k'gM c? k|of]uzfnfx?af6 k/LIf0f u/fpFbf o:tf q'6Lx? kQf nfu]sf x'g\ . lj:t[t ljj/0f Seattle Post sf] j]a[4] df x]g{ cg'/f]w ub{5' .
gSsnL 8LPgP
Oh/fonL j}1flgsx?n] gSsnL 8LPgP ljj/0f agfP/ b]vfPsf] pbfx/0f klg k|sflzt ePsf] 5 . pgLx?sf] egfO 5, olb ;+u|lxt 8LPgP e08f/ ( data base) k|of]u ug{ lbg] xf] eg], h'g ;'s} AolQm;+u ldNg] 8LPgP ljj/0f agfO lbg ;Sb5g\ . 8f= Dr. Frumkin sf] egfO{ 5 ls hLj lj1fgs]f ,:gfts txsf] ljBfyL{n] klg s[lqd 8LPgP agfpg ;S5 .[5]
8LPgPsf] k|ltkmn
;g !(*^ df 8LPgPsf] klxnf] ;ˆmntfsf] k|rf/ a]nfotaf6 ljleGg ;+rf/sf dfWox?n] ;+;f/e/L ˆ}mnfof] . ˆmn:j?k j}1flgs pknAwL eg]/ ljZje/ dfGotf kfof] . klZrdsf b]zx? ;+o'Qm clw/fHo, ;+o'Qm /fHo cd]l/sf , c:6|]\lnof / Sofgf8fsf xhf/f} dflg;nfO{ o;sf] cfwf/df sf/fuf/ k7fOof] . t/ o;sf] lg:sif{df klg q'6Lsf ;Defjgfx? w]/} x'Fbf /x]5g\ eGg] s'/f cfh !%.!^ jif{ kl5 cfP/ dfq yfxf x'g cfPsf] 5 .
cd]l/sL k|of]uzfnfsf] q'6LM Xo':6gsf] ;6g s]zM
;g !((( df Xo';6gsf] hf]l;of ;6g (Josia Sutton) gfd u/]sf] s]6f] nfO{ ha/h:tL of}g b'/frf/ u/]sf] cleof]udf 8LPgP k/LIf0f k|lt[6]j]bg k|df0fsf] cfwf/df 6]S;f;sf] Pp6f cbfntn] @% aif{ s}bsf] ;hfo u/]sf]] lyof] . rf/ jif{ kl5 ;g @))# df 8LPgP k|ltj]bg q'6Lk"0f{ k|dfl0ft eof] / p;n] ;ˆmfO{ kfof] .
h]ndf /x] s} cj:yfdf cfˆ'm lgbf]{if /x]sf] s'/f Xo';6g 6]n]lehgsf kqsf/x?nfO{ ;6gn] ljZjf; x'g] u/L cfKmg]f syf j0f{g u/sf] lyof] . 6]n]lehgsf kqsf/x?n] klg lbnrZkL lbP/ jf:tljstf kQf nufpg cfˆ}mn] vr{ Aoxf]/]/ @) jif{ eGbf a9L] cjlwsf] cg'ej xf;Ln u/]sf ck/fw zf:q k9fpg] Ole{g ljZjljBfnosf k|f]ˆ]m;/ ljlnod yfd;g (William Thompson, a UC Irvine professor) nfO ;6g ;d]t 8LPgPsf] cfwf/df sf/fuf/df ;hfo ef]uL /x]sf cf7 hgf sf] k|df0f ˆmfon ldl;n ;d]t hf] rflxg] cWoog cg';Gwfg ug{ cg'/f]w u/]sf lyP . pgn ] sfg"gsf] l/t k'of/\ofP/ z'? b]lv cGt ;Ddsf k|of]uzfnfsf] sfo{ k|q[mofx?, k|of]u ul/Psf pks/0f /;fogx? cflb ;a} cWoog u/]/ lg:sif{ lgsfn]] . 8LPgP lgsfNbf cIfDo q'6Lx? ePsf], k|of]uzfnfsf] k|ls|of Hofb} bogLo, q'6Lsf ;Defjgfx? k|;:t /xsf, ltgLx?sf] lg/fs/0f ug]{ s'g]} k|s[of gckgfO{sf, 8LPgP k/LIf0f k|ltj]bg klg q'6Lk"0f{ tl/sfn] tof/ ul/Psf] cflb ljleGg lsl;dsf q'6L b]lvP . cf7 hgfsf] k|ltj]bg cWoog ubf{ ;ft hgfsf] /fo q'6Lk"0{f b]lvg cfof] . of] s'/f ha 6]lnlehgaf6 k|;f/0f eof],ta dfq ;a}n] yfxf kfP, 8LPgP k|df0fsf] cfwf/df dfq lg0f{o ubf{ 7"nf] cgy{ x'g] /x]5 eg]/ . To;} sf/0fn] c? :jtGq k|df0fn] ;dy{g gu/] ;Dd 8LPgPsf] cfwf/df dfq lg0f{o ug{ x'b}g eGg] cd]l/sL cbfntx?n] dfGg yfn]sf x'g\ . It was a revelation," Thompson said. "Clearly, the profile of the second man did not match Sutton." [7]
;+o'Qm clw/fHosf] Pp6f k|x/L sfof{noaf6 ;g\ !(((df !)) hgfnfO{ 8LPgP k|df0fsf] cfwf/df ;hfo lbOPsf] lyof] . kfls{+G;g /f]uaf6 kLl8t, cfkm} ;jf/L ;fwg rnfpg g;Sg] / cfKmgf] n'uf klg cfkm} /fd|f] u/L nufpg g;Sg} @)) dfOn 6f9f a:g] Ps hgf AolQmsf] 8LPgP / 36gf:yndf kfO{Psf] a:t'df e]6fOPsf] 8LPgP ldNof] eg]/ rf]/L d'2fdf ;hfo u/fOof] . 8LPgP k|ltj]bgdf #& ldlnog dflg; dWo] s'g} Ps hgfsf] dfq o:tf] l8PgP ldNg] ;Defjgf x'G5, t;y{ csf]{ AolQmsf] 8LPgP x'g] ;Defjgf Hofb} Go"g x'g] x'bf p;}n] g} rf]/L u/]s]f xf] eGg] /fo lyof] . la/fdL AolQm 36gf:yndf hfg ;Sg] cj:yf g} gx'bf k|ltj]bg unt xf] eGg] sfg"g Aoj;foLsf] egfO{ ePsf]n] k'gM 8LPgP hfFr u/fOof] . klxn]sf] k|ltj]bg q'6Lk"0f{ g} b]lvof] / 5+ dlxgf ;Dd h]ndf y'g]/ lgbf]{if 7x/fO{ l/xfO{ ul/of] . #& ldlnog dflg; dWo] s'g} Ps hgfsf] dfq o:tf] l8PgP ldNg] ;Defjgf x'G5, eGg] 8LPgP ljz]if1s]f egfO{ unt l;4 eof] . bh{gf}{ dflg;sf] k/:k/ ldTNg] p:t} 8LPgP ljj/0f x'g ;Sb5 eg]/ csf{ ljb\jfg ljz]if1 Keith Inman n] klg n]v]sf 5g\ . [9]
k|x/Lsf clwsf/Lx?n] o:tf cfKmgf uNtLx? uf]Ko g} /fVg] u/]sf /x]5g\ . hgj/L @))) df ljZjsf 8LPgP ljz]if1x?sf] ;Dd]ng jflz+u6gdf ePsf] loof] . Tof] ;Dd]ngdf cd]l/sLx?n] cfKmgf] q'6L cf}+NofP kl5, To;} s|ddf a]nfotL clwsf/Lx?n] klg d'v vf]n] 5g\ . a]nfotL k|of]uzfnfdf cfKmgf] q'6L kQf nufpg g;Sg'sf] sf/0f ;xefuLx?n] hfgsf/L lng v]fHbf a]nfotL ;/sf/L k|aQmfn] hjfkm lbP "No system is 100 percent fulproof" [10]
a]nfotL cbfntsf] km};nf
cf/ lj?4 jf6;{ ( R. v. Watters [11]) sf] d'2fsf a]nfotsf] k'g/fj]bg cbfnt ( Court of Appleal " Criminal division" n]] Octuber 19, 2000 df ePsf] Pp6f km};nf af6 8LPgP cfkm} Pp6f :jtGq k|df0f x'g ;Sb}g eGg] s'/f ljz]if1sf] /fonfO g} cfwf/ lnP/ ul/Psf] km};nfsf] ;+lIfKt ljj/0f pNn]v ug{ rfxG5' .
rf]/L ePsf] 36gf:yndf Pp6f kmflnPsf] r'/]f6sf] 7"6f]af6 lgsflnPsf] 8LPgP ljj0f (DNA Profile ) / cleo'Qmsf] /utsf] 8LPgP ljj/0f b'a}sf] >f]t Pp6} xf] . cleo'Qmsf] ghLssf] gft]bf/ afx]s c? *^ ldlnog AolQm dWo] s'g} Ps hgfsf] 8LPgPdf o:tf] ;dfgtf x'g ;Sb5 . t;y{, rf]/Lsf] 36gf:yndf kfOPsf] r'/f]6sf] 7"6f] cleo'Qm s} xf] eGg] 8LPgP ljz]if1sf] k|ltj]bgsf] cfwf/df cleo'Qmn] ^ jif{ s}bsf] ;hfo kfPsf] lyof] . hL/xsf] qmddf /fo AoQm ug]{ ljz]if1n] s] s'/f :ki6 kfl/g\ eg], olb cleo'Qmsf] @ hgf bfh" jf efO{ 5g\ eg] of] ;Defjgf 36]/ #@ dWo] s'g} Ps hgf;+u of] 8LPgP ldNg ;Sb5 . pgn] of] klg :ki6 ul/g\ ls c? k|df0fn][12] ;dy{g gu/] ;Dd o;sf] dfq k|of]u ug{ x'b}g . 8LPgPn] dfq ;To xf] eGg] s'/f k|dfl0ft ub{}g . "She also confirmed that DNA evidence should not be used in isolation and other supporting evidence, however tenues. DNA evidence in itself was not proof." [13] cbfntaf6 cleo'QmnfO{ ;kmfO{ lbOof] .
dlxnfk'?ifsf] ;Dks{ x'g] ;Defjgf /x];Dd dlxnfn] atfPsf] k'?if g} aRrfsf] afa' xg] ef/tLo km};nfM M
kmf}hbf/L d'2fdf 8LPgPsf] ;xof]u lnPklg lkt[Tj lg0f{o ug{ of] k|df0f lnO{b}g . ef/tLo k|df0f P]g !*&@ sf] bkmf !!@ g} nfu' ul/Psf] x'G5 . x]g{' xf];\, ef/tLo ;jf]{Rr cbfntsf k"j{ k|wfg GofofwLz >L kL=Pg= eujtLsf] /fo pw[t u/L Tof] /fonfO{ g} k'i6L ub}{ tof/ ul/Psf] cS;kmf]8{ ljZjljBfnoaf6 k|sflzt t'ngfTds sfg"g, zLif{ssf] @))([14] df k|sflzt n]v .
g]kfnsf] ;jf]{Rr cbfntsf] km};nf
æ;j{ k|yd k|df0fsf] >[+vnfdf ;a} eGbf kl5 g]kfndf g} ;'ljwf pknAw eO{ k/LIf0f cf/De ePsf] 8L=Pg=P k/LIf0fsf] rrf{ ug{ h?/L 5 . of] k/LIf0faf6 k|fKt k|ltj]bgsf] k|:t't d'2fdf s] slt / s:tf] :yfgx'g] eGg] s'/fsf] lgwf}/0f k|df0f P}g @)#! sf] bkmf @# -!_ n] ub{5 . of] bkmf cg';f/ cbfntn] lj1fg ;d]tsf ;DaGwdf /fo osLg ug'{ k/]df ;f] ;DawL ljz]if1sf] /fo k|df0fdf lng x'g] Aoj:yf u/]s]f 5 . 8L=Pg=P= k/LIf0f s'g} AolQmsf] h}ljs afa' cfdf osLg ug{ j}1flgs pkfo xf] eGg] s'/fdf ljjfb 5}g . lkt[Tjsf] 7x/ ug]{ Ps dfq pkfo eg] 8L=Pg=P= k/LIf0fsf] k|ltj]bg x'\g;Sb}g . k|df0f sf] >[vnfdf Pp6f k|df0f 8L=Pg=P k/LIf0f klg x'g ;S5 . t/ cGo k|df0f s} cfwf/df lkt[Tj ljifo osLg ug{ ;lsG5 eg] of] k/LIf0f u/fpg kg]{ afWotf cbfntnfO{ gx'g klg ;Sb5 . ljz]if1sf] /fosf] cfjZostf 5 jf 5}g, cbfntn] dx;'; ug]{ s'/f ePsf] k|df0f P]g @)#! sf] bkmf @#-!_n] g} k|i6 u/]s]f 5 . kIfn] dfu ub}{df 8L= Pg=P= k/LIf0f u/fpg cfb]z lbg cbfnt afWo x'b}g . of] k/LIf0f u/fpg dfu ug]{ kIfsf] egfO{ k|lts"n /fo cfof] eg] klg p;nfO{ b08 hl/jfgf ;d]tsf s'g} bfloTj Aoxf]g{ gkg]{ x'gfn] gftf xf]Og eGg] kIfsf] dgf]ljgf]b ug{ jf s;} k|ltsf] OaL ;fWg jf dlxnfsf] dfg db{g ug{ jf ;fdflhs tyf kfl/jfl/s ;+/rgf vn\aNofpgsf] nflu 8L=Pg=P k/LIf0f ug]{ cfb]z ;xfos gxf];\ eGg] s'/fdf cbfnt ;w} ;r]t /xg} kb{5 .
==== ljz]if1sf] /fosf] dxTj /fVg] 8L=Pg=P= k/LIf0f k|ltj]bg lgZrofTds ;a"b ( Conclusive Proof ) sf] :yfg u|x0f ug{ eg] g;Sg] klg x'g ;S5 . ljz]if1sf] /fo Gofo stf\{nfO{ Goflos lg:sif{ lgsfNg ;3fpk'ofpg] Pp6f dfWod dfq xf] . cGo k|ToIf tyf ljZjf; ug{ nfos k|df0fx?sf] >[+vnfn] 8L=Pg=P= k/LIf0f k|ltj]bgsf] ljkl/t lg:sif{ lgsfNb5g\ eg] Gofo stf{n] oL k|df0fx?sf] >[+vnfsf cfwf/df pko'Qm cjwf/0ff agfpg g;slsg] x'b}g .
;+;f/df s'g} klg s'/f lg/k]If x'b}g eg] 8L=Pg=P k/LIf0f k|ltj]bg zt k|ltzt ;To x'G5 eg]/ dfGg g;lsg] klg x'g ;S5 . k/LIf0f ug]{ ;+o~q, jftfj/0f, ;do / ;fwfgn] of] k/LIf0fnfO{ k|efj kfb}{ kfb}{g eGg] 7fGg' klg plrt x'b}g . xfd|f] ;fdflhs, cfly{s / kl/jfl/s j:t"l:yltaf6 xfdL lg/k]If /xg ;sf}nf g} eGg] dfGg' klg plrt x'b}g . 8L=Pg=P= k/LIf0f k|ljlw pRr j}1flgs pkfo eP klg xfdLsxfF o:tf] k/LIf0f x'g] xfn ;Dd Psdfq :yfg x'g' / ;Lldt j}1flgs x'g'af6 pkfosf] e/k'/ kmfObf lng ;Sg] l:yltdf k'uL ;s]sf klg 5}gf} . ====cGo k|df0fn] afbL bfaL z+sfsf] 3]/fdf /x]sf] cj:yf eO{ cfPsf] 8LPgP k/LIf0fn] afbLnfO{ d';]sf] 5f]/f x'g} g;Sg] l:ylt b]vfPsf] 5 . o;/L 8LPgP k/LIf0f k|ltj]bgdf cleAoQm /fo ldl;n ;+nUg pNn]lvt cGo k|df0fx? b\jf/f ;dlYf{t eO /x]sf] 5 .Æ [15]
of] km};nfsf] af/]df ljb\jfg ljz]if1x? / Gofo lbg] tyf lbnfpg] ljb\jfgx?sf] aLrdf klg ljleGg lsl;dsf k|ltls|ofx? AoQm ePsf] ;'lgof] . dfyL oyf:yfgdf pNn]lvt ;}4flGts, Aofjxfl/s, jftfj/0fLo cj:yfx? / ;+o'Qm clw/fHo a]nfot tyf ;+o'Qm /fHo cd]l/sfsf 8LPgP k/LIf0f ug]{ k|of]uzfnfx?s]f k|ltj]bgx? Pj+ tL b]zsf cbfntx?n] u/]s]f km};nfx?n], h'g b]zaf6 8LPgP sf] k|rf/ / ljsfz eof], ltg} b]zx?sf cg'ejL pRr lzIff xflzn u/]sf 1fg ;Lk / ;fwg ;DkGg ljz]if1x?n] u/]sf] k/LIf0f k|ltj]bgx? g} z+sfsf] 3]/faf6 aflx/ lg:sg ;s]s]f b}lvb}g . tL b]zsf 1fg ;Lk k|ljlw ;fwg / ;|f]tsf] t'gfdf xfd|f] 1fg;Lk ;fwg / ;|f]tx? ;d]tnfO{ ;d]t dWogh//fvL xfd|f] ;jf]{Rr cbfntaf6 dfggLo GofofwLz >L /fh]Gb| k|;fb sf]O/fnfHo" / dfggLo GofofwLz >L k|sfz j:tLHo"af6 ePsf] pQm km};nfnfO{ x]g'{ kb{5' . ljb\jfgx?s} cg'ejaf6 8LPgP k/LIf0f k|ltj]bg ;bf;xL / ;To x'g ;Sb}g egL c? :jtGq k|df0faf6 ;dly{t ePdf dfq o;sf] k|df0f lng x'G5 eGg] g} ljZjsf cbfntx? / ljb\jfgx?s]f dfGotf b]lvg cfPsf] 5 .
;f/fzM
NofKr]5fkdf Pp6} dflg;sf] b"O6f cf}nfsf] /]vf klg k/:k/ ldNb}g . o;sf] ;Tof;To kmf]6f] x]/]/ hf] ;'s}n] h}n] klg hfFRg ;S5 . t/ Pp6fsf] 8LPgP csf]{ AolQm;+u ldNb}g eGg] s'/f ;To xf]Og . h'Dofxf aRrfx?sf] 8LPgP cfk;df ldN5 . cfdfafa'af6 8LPgP ;/]/ 5f]/f 5f]/Ldf cfpg] x'bf bfh' efOsf] 8LPgPdf klg w]/} g} ;dfgtf x'G5 [16] . gd"gfaf6 8LPgP ;f/ lgsfNbf ljleGg ;|f]taf6 ld;fj6 x'g] ;Defjgf cTolws x'G5 . dflg;n] g} n]v]sf] ;km\6j]/ k|of]uu/]/ 8LPgP u|fkm lgsflnG5 . ;a} ;km\6j]/n] ;bf ;xL / ;To g} lg:sif{ lgsfN5 eGg klg ;lsb}g . ahf/af6 vl/b ul/g] /;fogx? ;bf z'4 g} x'G5 eGg klg ;lsb}g . Psk6s k|of]u ePsf] gd"gf k'gM k/LIf0f x'g ;Sb}g . c? gd"gf pknAw gx'g klg ;S5, pknAw eP klg klxn]s} gd"gfsf] c+z xf] eGg] klg kSsf k|df0f gx"g ;S5 . cf}nf5fksf] cf7f]6f /]vf ldn]sf] cfwf/df ef/tLo cbfntn] d[To' b08 ;Dd klg k|bfg u/]sf] b]lvG5 . s'g} :jtGq k|df0fn] ;dy{g gu/]sf] cj:yfdf ;fdfGo rf]/L d'2f ;Dddf klg 8LPgP ljsl;t ePsf b]zsf cbfntx?af6 klg ;hfo ePsf] b]lvb}g . t;Yf{ 8LPgP ljz]if1sf] /fo csf6\o k|df0f xf]Og . /fdgjdL, r}q !! ut], @)^^.
(*%!)($@&! , dotpen@gmail.com
[1] o; ljifodf x]g'{ xf]; sfg"g Aoj;foL Snaaf6 sfg"g pTs[i6 n]vg k'/:sf/ @)^^ b\jf/f k'/:s[t, sfg"g, c+s &%, k[i7 &$, !% c;f/ @)^^ df sfg"g Aoj;foL Sna sf7df8f}af6 k|sflxt n]v j}1flgs k|df0f 8LPgP / xfd|f] sfg"gL Aoj:yf .
[2] A one foot long string or strand of DNA is normally packed into a space roughly equal to a cube 1/millionth of an inch on a side. This is possible only because DNA is a very thin string. SCIENTIFIC TESTIMONY, AN ONLINE JOURNAL by DONALD E. RILEY, Ph.D.University of Washington. http://www.scientific.org/tutorials/articles/riley/riley.html
[3] DONALD E. RILEY, Ph.D.University of Washington n] cfˆmgf] n]vdf cd]l/sfsf b'O6f sDkglx?n] a]r]sf] Kits (LK;LCF/ reagent kits) sold PE Applied Biosystems and by Promega.) af6 lgsflnPsf] gtLhf k/:k/ gldn]sf] pbfx/0f pNn]v u/]sf 5g\ . Pp6fn] cfwf/zLnf A lgsfn]sf] 5 eg] csf]{ n] G lgsfn]sf] 5 . o;/L glthf g} ˆm/s k/]sf] lyof]
[5] Scientists in Israel have demonstrated that it is possible to fabricate DNA evidence, undermining the credibility of what has been considered the gold standard of proof in criminal cases.
Dr. Frumkin is a founder of Nucleix, a company based in Tel Aviv that has developed a test to distinguish real DNA samples from fake ones that it hopes to sell to forensics laboratories.
Tania Simoncelli, science adviser to the American Civil Liberties Union, said the findings were worrisome.
See in detail at : http://mail.google.com/mail/?shva=1#inbox/123812b92ba85bbc
[9] ibid
[14] Section 112 of the Act: 'Birth during marriage, conclusive proof of legitimacy - The fact that any person was born during the continuance of a valid marriage between his mother and any man, or within two hundred and eighty days after its dissolution, the mother remaining unmarried, shall be conclusive proof that he is the legitimate son of that man, unless it can be shown that the parties to the marriage had no access to each other at any time when he could have been begotten' (my emphasis).
Interestingly, in Ireland the legitimacy presumption was always regarded as a strong rather than conclusive presumption. In Yool v. Ewing,46 Sir Andrew Porter MR observed:
"Now, the presumption of legitimacy in the case of a child born during wedlock is not one juris et de jure... The question is one of fact. But the presumption is of enormous strength, and will not be rebutted in an ordinary case, where husband and wife live together, by mere evidence, or even proof, that a person or persons other than the husband had improper relations with the wife. In such a case the law, on the clearest grounds of public policy and decency, will not allow any enquiry as to who is the father. But it might be otherwise [where]... the husband and wife were not living under the same roof, though... there was clearly possibility of access."
Oxford U Comparative L Forum 4 at ouclf.iuscomp.org
http://ouclf.iuscomp.org/articles/khandekar.shtml[14]
[15] o]f ;af]{Rr cbfnt, ;+o'Qm Ohnf;af6 dfggLo GofofwLz >L /fh]Gb| k|;fb sf]O/fnf / dfggLo GofofwLz >L k|sfz j:tLHo" n] ldlt @)^^ ;fn d+;L/ @ ut] /f]h ^ df ePsf] @)^) ;fnsf] b] k' g+ *^^* sf] cIfj/ clx/ sf] d'= ;= ug]{ a'4' clx/ lj?4 s'Nn'/ clx/ ePsf] c+z gfd;f/L d'2fsf] km};nfsf] c+z xf] .
[iii] Most forensic laboratories are aware of stutter artifacts and many take extremely careful and appropriate countermeasures. However stutter artifacts conceivably could play a role if inappropriate attempts are made to interpret minor components of a mixture.
cWoog M ;|f]t
-Seattle Crime Lab Reports: http://www. seattle.com/local/183018crimelabboxesweb22.html
-R. V. Watters, UK, Court of Appeal: http://www.forensic-evidence.com/site/ EVID/DNA-watters.html
_ Scientific Testimony an Online Jaurnal: http://www.scientific.org/tutorials/articles/riley/relyy.html
-Evaluating forensic DNA evidence: http://www.bioforensics.com/articles/champin1/champion1.html
The DNA Wars Are Over:- http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/case/revolution/wars.html
A Mistaken DNA Identification :- http://www.forensic-evidence.com/site/EVID/EL_DNAerror.html
Accurate Base Calling from Multiple Electropherograms:- http://www.sti.uniurb.it/bogliolo/e-publ/eccb02.pdf
http://www3.appliedbiosystems.com/cms/groups/applied_markets_support/documents/generaldocuments/cms_039276.pdf
ERROR IN FORENSIC DNA TESTING:-http://www.councilforresponsiblegenetics.org/GeneWatch/GeneWatchPage.aspx?pageId=57&archive=yes
Post-conviction DNA testing: the UK's first ‘exoneration’ case:-http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1351149/
Post-conviction DNA testing: the UK's first ‘exoneration’ case?
http://thecrimereport.org/2009/10/14/mistaken-identities-dna-exonerations-a-case-study/
DNA Evidence, Cases of Exoneration:- http://www.enotes.com/forensic-science/dna-evidence-cases-exoneration
DNA EVIDENCE IN CRIMINAL APPEAL... :-http://www.law.mq.edu.au/html/MqLJ/vol2pdf/volume2-6.pdf
Kinds of mistakes in dna reports and conviction in the court:-http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2009/08/06/f-wrongfully-convicted.html
| Macquarie Law Journal:- http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/MqLJ/2002/6.html |
The verdict: Dishonor :- http://www.barnesandnoble.com/
CASES FROM AROUND THE COUNTRY:- http://www.anusha.com/dishonor.htm
The Oxford University Comparative Law Forum :-http://ouclf.iuscomp.org/articles/khandekar.shtml
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